Amygdala and Hypothalamus: Historical Overview With Focus on Aggression.

Aggressiveness has a high prevalence in psychiatric patients and is a major health problem. Two brain areas involved in the neural network of aggressive behavior are the amygdala and the hypothalamus. While pharmacological treatments are effective in most patients, some do not properly respond to conventional therapies and are considered medically refractory. In this population, surgical procedures (ie, stereotactic lesions and deep brain stimulation) have been performed in an attempt to improve symptomatology and quality of life. Clinical results obtained after surgery are difficult to interpret, and the mechanisms responsible for postoperative reductions in aggressive behavior are unknown. We review the rationale and neurobiological characteristics that may help to explain why functional neurosurgery has been proposed to control aggressive behavior.

Efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy augmentation for partial response to clozapine: a pilot randomized ECT – sham controlled trial

Abstract Background Thirty percent of schizophrenia patients are treatment-resistant. Objective This is a single-blinded sham-controlled trial to assess the efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) as augmentation strategy in patients with clozapine-resistant schizophrenia. Methods Twenty three subjects were randomly assigned to 12 sessions of ECT (N = 13) or placebo (Sham ECT) (N = 10). The primary outcome was improvement on psychotic symptoms as measured by the mean reduction of the PANSS positive subscale. The assessments were performed by blind raters. Results At baseline both groups were similar, except for negative and total symptoms of the PANSS, which were higher in the Sham group. At the endpoint both groups had a significant decrease from basal score. In the ECT group the PANSS total score decreased 8.78%, from 81.23 to 74.75 (p = 0.042), while the positive subscale had a mean reduction of 19% (19.31 to 16.17, p = 0.006). In the Sham group, the mean reduction of PANSS total score was 15.27% (96.80 to 87.43; p = 0.036), and the PANSS positive subscale decreased 27.81% (22.90 to 19.14, p = 0.008). The CGI score in ECT group decreased 23.0% (5.23 to 4.17; p = 0.001) and decreased 24.31% in the Sham ECT group (5.80 to 4.86; p = 0.004). Discussion In this pilot study, we found no difference between the groups.

Electroconvulsive therapy in Brazil after the "psychiatric reform": a public health problem--example from a university service.

OBJECTIVES: The Brazilian public health system does not provide electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which is limited to a few academic services. National mental health policies are against ECT. Our objectives were to analyze critically the public policies toward ECT and present the current situation using statistics from the Institute of Psychiatry of the University of São Paulo (IPq-HCFMUSP) and summary data from the other 13 ECT services identified in the country. METHODS: Data regarding ECT treatment at the IPq-HCFMUSP were collected from January 2009 to June 2010 (demographical, number of sessions, and diagnoses). All the data were analyzed using SPSS 19, Epic Info 2000, and Excel. RESULTS: During this period, 331 patients were treated at IPq-HCFMUSP: 221 (67%) were from São Paulo city, 50 (15.2%) from São Paulo's metropolitan area, 39 (11.8%) from São Paulo's countryside, and 20 (6.1%) from other states; 7352 ECT treatments were delivered-63.0% (4629) devoted entirely via the public health system (although not funded by the federal government); the main diagnoses were a mood disorder in 86.4% and schizophrenia in 7.3% of the cases. CONCLUSIONS: There is an important lack of public assistance for ECT, affecting mainly the poor and severely ill patients. The university services are overcrowded and cannot handle all the referrals. The authors press for changes in the mental health policies.

Prevalence of mental disorders among sexual offenders and non-sexual offenders / Prevalência de transtornos mentais entre agressores sexuais e não sexuais

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of mental disorders in convicted sex offenders admitted to the Psychiatric Custody and Treatment Hospital (Forensic Psychiatric Facility). METHOD: 89 patient records of males admitted from March 2005 to August 2006 were analyzed. The analysis included evaluation of two study groups: Group I comprised subjects who had committed sex offenses (sexual offenders) while Group II contained subjects convicted for other crimes (non-sexual offenders). Variables studied were: age bracket, years of schooling, marital status, skin color, place of birth, previous psychiatric admissions and psychiatric diagnosis. RESULTS: Mental retardation and personality disorders were the mainly diagnoses in Group I (sexual offenders) (61,76 percent and 29,41 percent respectively). In the other hand, schizophrenic subjects predominated in Group II (non-sexual offenders) (82,93 percent). CONCLUSION: Different from international data, we have found low prevalence of personality disorders among Brazilian forensic population and we believe that it's due to a distinguishing characteristic of the Brazilian legal system, which does not consider personality disorder a mental disease, thus, not prompting these patients to civil commitment.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a prevalência de transtornos mentais em pacientes em cumprimento de medida de segurança por crimes de natureza sexual e não sexual. MÉTODO: Foram analisados 89 prontuários de pacientes do sexo masculino internados no período de março de 2005 a agosto de 2006. A análise consistiu na avaliação de dois grupos de estudo assim divididos: Grupo I, composto de sujeitos que cometeram crimes sexuais, e Grupo II, formado por sujeitos que foram condenados por outros crimes que não de natureza sexual. As variáveis analisadas foram: idade, grau de escolaridade, estado civil, cútis, naturalidade, internações psiquiátricas anteriores e diagnóstico psiquiátrico. RESULTADOS: Entre os sujeitos do Grupo I (condenados por crimes sexuais), observou-se maior prevalência de diagnóstico de retardo mental (61,76 por cento) e transtorno de personalidade (29,41 por cento). Já no Grupo II (condenados por crimes de outra natureza que não sexual), houve predominância do diagnóstico de esquizofrenia (82,93 por cento). CONCLUSÃO: Diferentemente do encontrado na literatura internacional, em nosso meio observou-se baixo índice de transtorno de personalidade entre os sujeitos estudados, o que pode ser justificado pelo fato de o sistema penal brasileiro considerar tal diagnóstico apenas como perturbação da saúde mental, não acarretando em medida de segurança ou internação psiquiátrica.

Perfil psicológico e comportamental de agressores sexuais de crianças: [revisão] / Psychological and behavioral profile of sexual abusers of children: [review]

CONTEXTO: A prática de abuso sexual contra crianças é um fenômeno universal. Ela ocorre em todos os tempos e lugares e atinge todas as classes socioeconômicas. Enquanto a maioria dos estudos investiga as vítimas, os poucos estudos sobre agressores se concentram principalmente em dados demográficos. OBJETIVO: Apresentar revisão da literatura quanto à classificação de molestadores sexuais de crianças, de acordo com o perfil psicológico e comportamental. MÉTODOS: Revisão da literatura e discussão do material utilizado. RESULTADOS: Apresentação das principais classificações dos criminosos sexuais contra crianças, identificando as tipologias mais utilizadas com suas possíveis contribuições à psiquiatria e à psicologia forense. CONCLUSÃO: A utilização do perfil psicológico em crimes sexuais é de fundamental relevância no contexto médico-legal, mas ainda carece de bases científicas mais sólidas.

BACKGROUND: Sexual violence against children is a universal problem, occurring since ever, everywhere and regardless the socio-economic status. Whist most studies have been dedicated to the victim of such crime, there is little information regarding their perpetrators, which is largely limited to the description of demographic data. OBJECTIVE: Review the literature regarding children sexual aggressors according to psychological and behavioral profile. METHODS: Literature review and discussion. RESULTS: Presentation of the major classifications of offenders, pointing out the most widely used ones and the implications to forensic psychiatry and psychology. CONCLUSION: The psychological and behavioral profile use is very important for medico-legal practice, but still needs better scientific validation.

Alterações afetivas em pacientes deprimidos submetidos à estimulação transcraniana por corrente contínua / Affective changes in depressed patients treated with transcranial direct current stimulation

O presente estudo avaliou o efeito da Estimulação Transcraniana por Corrente Contínua (ETCC), de córtex pré-frontal dorsolateral esquerdo, no tratamento de pacientes deprimidos, por meio de auto-relatos de afetos positivos, de afetos negativos e de satisfação com a vida. Participaram do estudo 31 pacientes com depressão maior, distribuídos em dois grupos: Grupo Ativo (n=21), submetido a dez sessões de ETCC anódica de 2mA no córtex pré-frontal, e Grupo Controle (n=10), submetido a dez sessões de ETCC placebo. Ambos os grupos responderam uma Escala Breve de Afetividade e avaliaram a satisfação com a vida em uma Escala de Faces Esquemáticas antes e após o tratamento. Pacientes do Grupo Ativo apresentaram aumento de afetos positivos, diminuição de afetos negativos e aumento na satisfação com a vida. Os resultados apontam para a presença de alterações afetivas bidimensionais na depressão e para o potencial terapêutico da ETCC no reajustamento de afetos positivos e negativos.(AU)

The present study evaluated, through self-reports of positive affects, of negative affects and of life satisfaction, the therapeutic effects of anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) on depressed patients. Thirty one patients with major depression participated on this study. They were distributed in two groups: Active Group (n=21) treated with ten sessions of anodal 2mA TDCS applied in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the Control Group (n=10) treated with ten sessions of TDCS placebo. Both groups answered a Brief Affect Scale and evaluated their life satisfaction through a Scale of Schematic Faces before and after the treatment. Patients of the Active Group presented an increase of positive affects, a reduction of negative affects and an increase of their life satisfaction. These findings point to the presence of bidimensional affective alterations in depression and to the therapeutic potential of the TDCS in the readjustment of positive and negative affects.(AU)

Comparison of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and electroconvulsive therapy in unipolar non-psychotic refractory depression: a randomized, single-blind study.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) can induce significant antidepressant effects and, for some patients, might be an alternative to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). The results of studies comparing the efficacy of rTMS and ECT are mixed and, therefore, comparison of these two therapies needs to be further explored. Forty-two patients aged between 18 and 65 yr, referred to ECT due to unipolar non-psychotic depression refractoriness entered the trial. They were randomly assigned to receive either rTMS or ECT. Depressive symptom changes were blindly measured by Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Visual Analogue Scale and Clinical Global Impression at baseline, after 2 wk and after 4 wk of treatment. There was no difference in the antidepressant efficacy of ECT and rTMS. Response rates were relatively low in both groups (40% and 50% respectively), with no significant difference between them (p=0.55). Remission rates were also low for both groups (20% and 10% respectively), also with no significant difference (p=0.631). There was no significant difference in the neuropsychological test performance after either one of these therapies. Both treatments were associated with a degree of improvement in refractory depression and therefore add to the literature that rTMS can be an effective option to ECT as it is a less costly treatment and is not associated with anaesthetic and other ECT risks.

[Transcranial magnetic stimulation in neuropsychology: new horizons for brain research]. / Estimulação magnética transcraniana na neuropsicologia: novos horizontes em pesquisa sobre o cérebro.

This review addresses the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation as a research tool of neuropsychological functions. Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a non-invasive and painless technique to modulate brain function that can be applied to conscious human beings and is based on a variable magnetic field. Using this technique, it is possible to generate virtual transient lesions in healthy people or modulate the brain activity, increasing or decreasing the activity of the stimulated areas. In this review we discuss studies with transcranial magnetic stimulation in which broad aspects of language, memory and neuropsychological tests have been evaluated following or during the application of transcranial magnetic stimulation. We concluded that transcranial magnetic stimulation open new horizons for brain research in the neuropsychological field as transcranial magnetic stimulation allows the investigation of the relationship between focal cortical activity and behavior therefore contributing to the study of the functional brain activity.

Estimulação magnética transcraniana na neuropsicologia: novos horizontes em pesquisa sobre o cérebro / Transcranial magnetic stimulation in neuropsychology: new horizons for brain research / Transcranial magnetic stimulation in neuropsychology: new horizons for brain research

Esta revisão discute o uso da estimulação magnética transcraniana como ferramenta de pesquisa das funções neuropsicológicas. A estimulação magnética transcraniana é uma técnica não-invasiva e praticamente indolor em seres humanos conscientes, baseada em um campo magnético variável. Tal técnica possibilita a geração, em pessoas saudáveis, de lesões temporárias virtuais ou, também, de aumento da atividade das áreas estimuladas, permitindo o estudo do comportamento e da cognição de maneira mais estruturada e precisa. Nesta revisão são apresentados trabalhos com estimulação magnética transcraniana nos quais foram estudados aspectos da linguagem, memória e baterias neuropsicológicas em protocolos de pesquisa clínica. Conclui-se que estudos com estimulação magnética transcraniana abrem novas perspectivas e possibilidades no campo da Neuropsicologia na medida em que fornecem elementos para o aprofundamento do conhecimento sobre as correlações entre cognição e córtex.

This review addresses the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation as a research tool of neuropsychological functions. Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a non-invasive and painless technique to modulate brain function that can be applied to conscious human beings and is based on a variable magnetic field. Using this technique, it is possible to generate virtual transient lesions in healthy people or modulate the brain activity, increasing or decreasing the activity of the stimulated areas. In this review we discuss studies with transcranial magnetic stimulation in which broad aspects of language, memory and neuropsychological tests have been evaluated following or during the application of transcranial magnetic stimulation. We concluded that transcranial magnetic stimulation open new horizons for brain research in the neuropsychological field as transcranial magnetic stimulation allows the investigation of the relationship between focal cortical activity and behavior therefore contributing to the study of the functional brain activity.

Uso de olanzapina e eletroconvulsoterapia em um paciente com esquizofrenia catatônica refratária e antecedentes de síndrome neuroléptica maligna / Olanzapine and ECT combined therapy in a refractory catatonic subtype schizophrenia patient with previous neuroleptic malignant syndrome episodes

Este artigo descreve a história clínica e o manejo de um paciente masculino adulto com esquizofrenia catatônica refratária a dois neurolépticos típicos (haloperidol e clorpromazina) e a outro agente atípico (risperidona), e com antecedente de dois episódios de síndrome neuroléptica maligna em vigência de neurolépticos típicos. Os autores optaram pela associação de eletroconvulsoterapia (ECT) e olanzapina (7,5 mg). Foram obtidos consideráveis benefícios para o paciente.

Effect of repetitive TMS and fluoxetine on cognitive function in patients with Parkinson's disease and concurrent depression.

Previous studies show that cognitive functions are more impaired in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and depression than in nondepressed PD patients. We compared the cognitive effects of two types of antidepressant treatments in PD patients: fluoxetine (20 mg/day) versus repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS, 15 Hz, 110% above motor threshold, 10 daily sessions) of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Twenty-five patients with PD and depression were randomly assigned either to Group 1 (active rTMS and placebo medication) or to Group 2 (sham rTMS and fluoxetine). A neuropsychological battery was assessed by a rater blind to treatment arm at baseline and 2 and 8 weeks after treatment. Patients in both groups had a significant improvement of Stroop (colored words and interference card) and Hooper and Wisconsin (perseverative errors) test performances after both treatments. Furthermore, there were no adverse effects after either rTMS or fluoxetine in any neuropsychological test of the cognitive test battery. The results show that rTMS could improve some aspects of cognition in PD patients similar to that of fluoxetine. The mechanisms for this cognitive improvement are unclear, but it is in the context of mood improvement.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation accelerates the antidepressant effect of amitriptyline in severe depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled study.

BACKGROUND: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive method to stimulate the cortex, and the treatment of depression is one of its potential therapeutic applications. Three recent meta analyses strongly suggest its benefits in the treatment of depression. The present study investigates whether repetitive TMS (rTMS) accelerates the onset of action and increases the therapeutic effects of amitriptyline. METHODS: Forty-six outpatients meeting DSM-IV criteria for nonpsychotic depressive episode were randomly assigned to receive rTMS (n = 22) or sham repetitive TMS (sham) (n = 24) during 4 weeks over dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in this double-blind controlled trial. All patients were concomitantly taking amitriptyline (mean dose 110 mg/d). The rTMS group received 20 sessions (5 sections per week) of 5 Hz rTMS (120% of motor threshold and 1250 pulses per session). Sham stimulation followed the same schedule, however, using a sham coil. The efficacy variables were the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-17 items (HAM-D/17), the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), and the Clinical Global Impression (CGI). Tolerability was assessed by clinical examination and a safety screening of TMS side effects. RESULTS: Repetitive TMS had a significantly faster response to amitriptyline. There was a significant decrease in HAM-D/17 scores, already after the first week of treatment (p < .001 compared with baseline and p < .001 compared with sham). The decrease in HAM-D/17 scores in the rTMS group was significantly superior compared with the sham group throughout the study (p < .001 at fourth week). CONCLUSIONS: Repetitive TMS at 5 Hz accelerated the onset of action and augmented the response to amitriptyline.

[Transcranial magnetic stimulation: review of accidental seizures]. / Estimulação Magnética Transcraniana: revisão dos casos de convulsões acidentais.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a new technique that has been used for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders, specially depression. It uses a magnetic stimulator that generates a magnetic field that is applied over the patient's skull with a coil. Possible seizures may be induced accidentally by TMS. TMS is usually used with sub threshold stimuli and seizures may occur by chance, especially when over the safety parameters. This article reviews the eight cases of undesirable seizures occurred with rTMS The possible mechanisms of seizure induction and the patients profile with a higher risk of convulsion are also described.

Estimulação Magnética Transcraniana: revisão dos casos de convulsões acidentais / Transcranial magnetic stimulation: review of accidental seizures

A Estimulação Magnética Transcraniana (no original, TMS, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) é uma nova técnica que tem sido utilizada para o tratamento de transtornos neuropsiquiátricos, principalmente depressão. É um tratamento que utiliza um aparelho estimulador que cria um campo magnético variável no tempo, aplicado sobre o crânio através de uma bobina de estimulação. O principal risco deste tratamento são as convulsões acidentais. A TMS é utilizada na maior parte dos estudos com estímulos subliminares. Convulsões podem ocorrer acidentalmente, especialmente quando os estímulos ultrapassam os parâmetros de segurança. Neste artigo, é feita uma detalhada revisão dos oito casos em que houve convulsões acidentais com o uso da TMS. Também são descritos os possíveis mecanismos de indução das convulsões e as características dos pacientes com maior risco de convulsões acidentais.

História dos tratamentos biológicos / Biologicals treatments's history

Contexto: Trata-se de uma discussão de como surgiram os tratamentos biológicos no decorrer da história da psiquiatria.